In vivo studies display anatomically selective neurochemical outcomes of modafinil on monoaminergic units (de Saint Hilaire et al 2001; Ferraro et al 2002), and, notably, whilst modafinil increases TMN fos expression (Scammell et al 2000) and HAergic tone it really is not able to exert this effect when administered straight in the TMN (Ishizuka et